Temporary marriage (Mutah)

                           Temporary Marriage (Muttah)   

Though there are important differences between Twelve-Imam Shi'ism and Sunnism on the level of the principles of the religion
(usul al-din), on the level of the sharia and fiqh or jurisprudence there are surprisingly few places where Shi'i or 'Ja'fari' law
differs from all four Sunni schools, the Hanaf'i, Hanbali, Maliki, and Shafi'i. Perhaps the most important difference occurs in
relation to the institution of mut'a, or 'temporary marriage'. The Sunni authorities agree that mut'a was permitted by the Prophet at
certain points during his lifetime, but they maintain that in the end he prohibited it completely. In contrast the Shi'is maintain that
the Prophet did not ban it, and they cite numerous hadith from Sunni as well as Shi'i sources to prove this. Having established its
legality, they then devote tremendous care and attention to defining its legal status and all the rules and regulations connected
with it.
One major purpose of the present study is to trace the origin of this divergence between Sunni and Shi'i law by going back to the
sources and arguments on both sides. A second purpose is to describe the legal situation of mut'a in Shi'ism. In order to do this, it
is first necessary to understand the rules and regulations that define marriage itself, since all the discussions of mut'a take place
within this context. Hence Chapter One describes the 'pillars' and 'conditions' of marriage according to the five schools of law,
though in a manner which is by necessity truncated and which makes no attempt to give a thorough presentation of all the
different opinions. Chapter Two discusses the 'four pillars' of mut'a and Chapter Three its 'statutes'. Once the nature of mut'a and
its structural relationship to permanent marriage is understood, the debates concerning the legitimacy of mut'a-summarized in
Chapter Four--can be better understood.
The present work is based on an MA dissertation completed in 1974 under the direction of Professor Abu 'l-Qasim Gurji of the
Faculty of Theology at Tehran University (most of the Persian text was published under the title Izdiwaj-i muwaqqat: (mut'asigha)
[Tehran: Hamdami, 1358/1979]). The original work included a brief investigation of the contemporary relevance of mut'a,
and nowadays I am often asked my opinion on this topic. Let me only remark that the modern West has not come near to solving
all the legal problems that have grown up because of relatively free sexual relationships in contemporary society. If any real
solution to these problems is possible, perhaps a certain inspiration may be drawn from a legal system such as mut'a which, with
its realistic appraisal of human nature, has been able to provide for the rights and responsibilities of all parties.
As for the abuses of mut'a that have occurred in certain times and places, in large measure these can be traced to the refusal of
people to observe the letter of the law; perhaps those who established mut'a had too high an opinion of human dignity, self
respect, and fear of God. They no doubt thought that the Prophet's saying: 'Every religion has its special character trait, and the
special character trait of my community is shame (haya') would continue in effect until the end of time. At least mut'a can be said
to provide a legal structure which, when observed, prevents most of the well known problems and abuses connected with

Permanent Marriage

IN ISLAM the word most commonly employed for marriage is nikah, which means literally
'sexual intercourse'. As a legal term it denotes the situation resulting from a particular contract,
entered into by a man and a woman, by which sexual intercourse between them becomes
legitimate in the eyes of God and society. The only other mode of legitimizing this sexual
relationship is by a man's purchasing a female slave, but this is a complicated discussion that
cannot concern us here.
Marriage as a legal institution is defined and described in terms of a number of 'pillars' (arkan) and
'statutes' (ahkam), which are discussed in what follows. The pillars are those elements of the
marriage contract whose absence nullifies the contract. The statutes are the rules and regulations
that govern the contract. A brief account will also be given of certain other legal points relating to
marriage, namely divorce, the waiting period, forswearing, sworn allegation, zihar, and inheritance.
I. The Pillars Of The Marriage Contract
Marriage has a set number of pillars, two according to the Shi'is, three according to the Malikis
and Hanafis, and four according to the Hanbalis and Shafi'is. All schools agree on the first two
pillars, 'formula' and 'persons'.
A. The Formula (sigha)
Marriage is legalized by a contract ('aqd), which, like all other contracts in Islam, consists of a
declaration (ijab) and an acceptance (qabul). The woman declares that she is entering into a
relationship of marriage with the man, and he accepts her as his wife.
The schools differ as to the exact words that may be employed in the woman's declaration. The
Shafi'is and Hanbalis hold that a formula derived from the words 'I have married you' (ankahtu-ka)
or 'I have espoused you' (zawwajtu-ka) are valid. The Malikis maintain that if the amount of the
dower to be paid to the wife (see IlA below) has been specified, the woman may also say 'I give
myself to you' (wahabtu-ka). [1] The Shi'is do not include the verb 'to give', but they add the
formula, 'I surrender myself to your pleasure' (matta'tu-ka). [2] The Hanafi school is the freest in
respect of the formula, allowing any number of expressions to be employed, even certain indirect
formulas.
All schools agree that the man may show his acceptance by employing any word which denotes
his satisfaction with the contract.
The Hanbali, Maliki, and Shi'i schools hold that the verbs for both declaration and acceptance
must be in the perfect tense. According to the Hanafis, the present tense may be employed as long
as what is meant is directed toward the future, i.e., does not denote the seeking of a promise of
marriage; [3] according to the Shafi'is, the present tense may be used if it excludes the possibility
of being interpreted as a promise of marriage, e.g., by adding the word 'right now' (al-an). [4] All
agree that both declaration and acceptance must be uttered at a single session. It is not necessary
for the declaration to precede the acceptance, except according to the Hanbalis. [5] A person who
knows Arabic must pronounce the formula in that language, but those who do not know Arabic
may employ equivalent terms in their own language. A mute may employ sign language.
B. The Persons (mahall)
The man and woman must be free of all shar'i hindrances to their marriage, as explained below.
The identity of the spouses must be clearly specified. Thus, for example, if the guardian (below, C)
should say: 'I give one of my two daughters to you in marriage', and the man should accept, the
contract is invalid.
A woman may not marry a husband who is not 'equal' (kafa) to her. According to the Shi'is, this
means only that the woman's husband must be a Muslim. [6] The Sunni schools add equality in
terms of various social considerations. Not only must the man be a Muslim, he must also have a
social standing at least equal to the woman's. In other words, she may not marry anyone below her
rank in society, though a man may do so. 'Equality' here is defined in terms of a number of factors
which differ slightly among the four schools. The Hanafis mention Islam, lineage, profession,
liberty (as opposed to slavery), piety, and property. The Shafi'is list lineage, religion, and
profession, differing only slightly in the words employed from the Hanbalis. The Malikis mention
piety and freedom from physical defects detrimental to marriage. [7]
A man and woman may be forbidden from marrying for several reasons:
1. Blood relationship (qaraba). A man may not marry the following women: (a) His mother or any
of his grandmothers; (b) His daughter or granddaughters, no matter how far removed; (c) His
sister; (d) His nieces, his aunts, or his great aunts.
2. Relationship by marriage (musahara). A man may not marry: (a) The mother or grandmothers
of his wife; (b) The daughter, granddaughter, etc., of a wife with whom his marriage has been
consummated; (c) The ex-wife of his son, grandson, etc.; (d) The ex-wife ofhis father, grandfather,
etc.
3. There are certain women whom a man may marry singly, but not at the same time. These are (a)
two sisters, and (b) a woman and the sister of her mother or father. In the second case, the Shi'is
take exception to the four Sunni schools by saying that if the aunt agrees to share her husband with
her niece, the contract is valid. [8]
Except for the daughter of his wife, in the three other instances of relationship by marriage, the
women become forbidden to the man as soon as the marriage contract is concluded; consummation
of the marriage is not necessary. But if a man wants to marry the daughter of a wife with whom he
has not consummated his marriage, he can do so if he first divorces the wife. Once the marriage
has been consummated, the wife's daughter is forbidden to him forever, whether or not the
marriage contract is valid. If a man should marry both a woman and her daughter or two sisters in
a single contract, both marriages are invalid. In both cases, should he first marry one and then the
other, the first contract is valid and the second void.
The schools of law differ as to what exactly establishes the unmarriageability of a woman as the
result of a relationship by marriage. For the Hanafis, unmarriageability is established by a valid
marriage contract, sexual intercourse in whatever context (i.e. whether as the result of a valid
contract, an invalid one, or fornication), love play, or looking at the private parts of a person of the
opposite sex. [9] The Shafi'is hold that unmarriageability is established only by a valid marriage
contract or by the consummation of an invalid marriage contract. They do not consider any other
factors, such as fornication or love play, as sufficient to establish unmarriageability. [10] The
Maliki position is the same as the Hanafi, except in the case of fornication; like the Shafi'is, the
Malikis hold that no honour or respect can be paid to fornication. [11] In the Hanbali view an
invalid contract, like a valid one, results in unmarriageability, as does sexual intercourse. [12] The
Shi'is hold the same position as the Shafi'is except that the opinion of the 'ulama's split on
fornication; one group says that it results in unmarriageability, another group says it does not. [13]
4. Foster relationships because of suckling (rida'). In establishing unmarriageability, a foster
mother who suckles an infant is considered exactly as the infant's real mother, provided that all the
shar'i conditions for this relationship are fulfilled, as detailed below. In other words, the children
of the foster mother are considered as the child's siblings, and all of her other relatives are
considered exactly as if they were truly the child's relatives by blood or marriage.
a.
The Shi'is and Hanbalis hold that the mother's milk must have been the result of pregnancy
from marriage. [14] The Shafi'is hold that the mere physical possibility of pregnancy is
sufficient. Thus, for example, if a married nine year old girl should have begun
menstruation and her breasts produce milk, and if she should provide milk for a foster
child, the shar'i foster relationship is established. [15] The Malikis and the Hanafis
maintain that it is only necessary for the woman to have given milk for the relationship to
be established; it makes no difference if she should also be an unmarried virgin, or if she is
too young to marry or too old to bear children. [16]
According to the Hanbali and Shafi'i schools, if the foster mother should have become
pregnant through fornication, the relationship of unmarriageability is established only with
the mother's blood relatives, not with the father's, since he has no legitimate relationship
with the mother. The Hanafi and Maliki schools say that unmarriageability is established
also with the father's relatives. [17] The Shi'is hold that in the case of fornication no
relationship of unmarriageability is established whatsoever, since fornication deserves no
respect. [18]
c.
According to four of the schools, the foster child must have been suckled before it reaches
two years of age for unmarriageability to be established. The Malikis set the age at two
years and two months. [19]
d.
According to all the schools, the milk must have entered the infant's stomach.
e.
The Shi'is hold that the infant must have suckled at the breast of the foster mother. Hence,
if the milk is placed in a container and fed to the child, the foster relationship is not
established. [20] The Sunni schools hold that the means of drinking the milk is irrelevant.
f.
The schools differ as to how many times milk must be drunk. The Shafi'i and Hanbali
schools hold that the infant must suckle at least five times. [21] The Shi'is hold that it must
suckle over a period of twenty-four hours or at least fifteen times, and each time it must
drink a quantity of milk that would customarily be called a 'feeding'. [22] According to the
Hanafis and Malikis, a single act of suckling, even if the infant drinks only one drop of
milk, is sufficient to establish the relationship. [23]
g.
The Shafi'is and the Shi'is add that the foster mother must be alive when the milk is drunk.
[24] The other schools hold that even if for some reason an infant should suckle at the
breast of a corpse, the foster relationship will be established. [25]
5. Religious difference. A woman may not marry a non-Muslim. In Sunnism, a man may marry a
woman who is one of the 'People of the Book' (ahl al-kitab, i.e., Christians, Jews, and other
religions with revealed scriptures). But in Shi'ism a man may not contract a permanent marriage
with a non-Muslim, though he may marry one of the People of the Book temporarily. [26] If either
of the spouses should become an apostate, the marriage is automatically annulled.
6. Maximum number of wives. A man may not have more than four wives at one time. If a man
should divorce one of his wives, he cannot remarry until her waiting period (below, IV) is
completed, unless the divorce should be of the irrevocable type (ba'in, see below under III).
7. Divorce. If a man should have divorced his wife irrevocably, she is forbidden to him forever,
unless she should marry another man and obtain a divorce from him. Once the woman's waiting
period has expired, she may remarry her first husband. The woman's husband is known as the
muhallill, 'he who makes [marriage to her first husband] lawful'. The marriage with the muJ:tallil
must be consummated. [27]
8. Sworn allegation. Having annulled his marriage through 'sworn allegation' (li'an, below, VII), a
man may never remarry the woman.
C. Guardianship (wilaya)
The legal guardian in the marriage contract may be the father, the father's father (Hanafi, Shafi'i,
Shi'i), the executor of the father's will concerning the marriage (wasi), the governor of the town
(hakim) in case of the nonexistence of the others (Hanbali), and the owner of a slave (Maliki). The
mother has no guardianship except in the Hanafi school, which holds that if there is no close male
relative, close female relatives may assume the guardianship and conclude the marriage contract.
[28]
In the Maliki and Shafi'I schools, the participation of the legal guardian is one of the pillars of the
marriage; in the Hanbali school it is a condition (shart) of the contract, which means that if the
contract is concluded without the guardian, it will be valid only on condition that the guardian
gives permission afterwards. [29] Hence in these three schools the woman does not have the right
to conclude a marriage contract without the participation of her guardian. [30] In the Shi'i and
Hanafi schools the presence of the guardian is required only at the marriage contract of a girl not
of age, that is, one who has not yet reached puberty (saghira), or of an incompetent or insane girl
or woman of age. In both these schools a girl who is physically mature may marry whomsoever
she wishes, and the validity of the contract is not conditional upon the presence of the guardian.
[31] However, the Hanafis add that since social equality (kafa') is a condition for a valid contract,
a guardian may annul a contract concluded by a woman on her own behalf with an unequal man.
[32]
In the Maliki, Hanbali, and Shafi'i schools, the guardian may give a virgin in marriage without her
consent, whether or not she is of age. But a woman or girl who has been married before may not
be given in marriage without her permission. [33] The Hanafis and Shi'is hold that only a girl not
of age may be given in marriage without her consent. [34] The Shafi'is add here that if an
underage girl has already been married, she may not be given in marriage again until she comes of
age. [35]
The regulations of guardianship also apply to boys not of age (saghir) and mentally incompetent
men. [36]
D. Witnesses (Shahid)
The Shafi'i, Hanbali, and Hanafi schools hold that the presence of two witnesses is a pillar of
marriage and that without their presence, the contract is invalid. [37] The Malikis hold that the
presence of two witnesses is necessary at the time of the marriage's consummation (dukhul), but
not during the contract, when their presence is merely recommended. [38] The Shi'is maintain that
the presence of one or more witnesses is not a pillar of the contract, so a man and woman may
conclude a contract secretly if they so wish. [39]
II. The Statutes Of Marriage
A. The Dower (mahr)
Whenever a man marries a woman, he must give her a dower in return for the sexual gratification
he is to receive. The dower must consist of a specified amount of property, cash, or profit. It must
be ritually pure and owned by the husband. All schools agree that the dower does not have to be
mentioned in the contract. If it is mentioned and does not fulfill the conditions required for dowers,
the contract is valid but the dower must be corrected.
There are two kinds of dower. The 'specified dower' (al-mahr al-musamma) is one upon which the
man and the woman agree. The 'normal dower' (a!-mahr a!-mathal) is what the woman receives if
she cannot come to an agreement with her husband over the specified dower, or if for some reason
the specified dower should be invalid. The normal dower is the amount of property, in cash or
kind, which other women of the same social status, age, beauty, etc., are receiving in the society of
the time.
According to four of the schools, as soon as the marriage contract is concluded, the woman
becomes the owner of the whole dower; the Malikis maintain that only one-half of the dower
belongs to her at this point. [40] Should the wife demand the dower from her husband
immediately, he must pay it to her; but if he should divorce her before consummation and she has
not yet taken the dower, he only has to pay her one-half.
In all schools, consummation of the marriage or the death of one of the spouses necessitates
payment of the full dower. The Malikis add that if the wife should live with her husband at least
one year, there being no hindrance to consummation of the marriage, he must pay the full dower.
[41] The Hanafis maintain that it is sufficient for the man to be alone with his wife on one
occasion when there is no hindrance to consummation. [42] According to the Hanbalis, being
alone with the wife, love play, and seeing her private parts are all sufficient cause for the payment
of the whole dower. [43]
Before consummation of the marriage, payment of all or part of the dower may be nullified for the
following reasons: I. One-half is nullified through divorce. 2. If the woman should become an
apostate, she loses the whole dower. 3. If the man should become an apostate, the marriage is void,
but he still must pay one-half the dower. 4. If the man or woman should annul the marriage
because of physical disability or deception by the partner, she forfeits the whole dower; however,
the Shi'is hold that if the woman should annul the marriage by reason of the man's impotence, she
will be entitled to one-half the dower. [44] 5. If a man and woman should suddenly become
forbidden to each other through the establishment of some relationship, e.g. a foster relationship,
where the woman is not at fault, she receives one-half the dower; if she is at fault she loses all of it.
According to the Maliki, Hanbali, and Shi'i schools, if the marriage contract should be invalid but
copulation takes place, the woman is entitled to the specified dower. [45] The Shafi'is hold that in
such a case, she receives the normal dower. [46] The Hanafis rule that she will receive whichever
of the two dowers is less. [47] In a case of 'mistaken intercourse' (waty a!-shubha), where
copulation takes place because the man and woman mistakenly believe themselves to be husband
and wife, the woman is entitled to the normal dower.
The woman may refrain from sexual intercourse as long as she has not received the dower. In such
a case the man may not claim conjugal rights unless it was explicitly stated in the marriage
contract that the dower would be paid at some later date. But if the woman should accept
intercourse before receiving the dower, from then on she may not refuse her husband, unless it is
proven that he has no ability to pay the dower; here the Shi'is take exception, holding that once the
marriage is consummated, the wife may not refuse intercourse because of the husband's inability to
pay the dower. [48] The Hanbalis, Shafi'is, and Malikis say that if the husband's inability to pay is
proven before consummation, the woman may annul the marriage; with the exception of the
Hanbalis, they hold that she may not do so after consummation, since her willingness to engage in
sexual intercourse proves that she accepted the marriage's validity; the Hanbalis say the woman
may annul the marriage even after consummation. [49] The Hanafis and Shi'is hold that the
woman may not annul the marriage, but she may refuse to engage in intercourse. [50]
If the woman should decide to return part or all of her dower to her husband, he is then free from
the obligation to pay it to her.
B. Support (nafaqa)
Once the woman has taken up residence with her husband, he must support her in a mode
corresponding to the support received by her equals. Support includes such things as food,
clothing, shelter, and other necessities. Payment of the dower becomes incumbent on the husband
as a result of the marriage contract, but payment of support only becomes incumbent as a result of
the contract and the wife's obedience to her husband. If the wife does not obey her husband, he is
not obliged to support her.
Here it should be kept in mind that in Islamic society a wife must 'obey' her husband only within
the shar'i limits, which is to say that the woman obeys the man on condition that he is obeying
God. Should he tell her to do something not sanctioned by the sharia her duty is to follow God,
not her husband.
A woman who is in the 'waiting period' (below, IV) after having been divorced, but not
irrevocably, by her husband, is entitled to support, since she is still his wife. A woman who is in
the waiting period of irrevocable divorce must be supported only if she is pregnant.
According to the Hanbalis, Malikis, and Shafi'is, if it is proven that the man does not have the
ability to support his wife with the necessities of life, she has the right to seek to annul the
marriage through a qadi (shar'i judge). The Hanafis and Shi'is maintain that a woman not
adequately supported by her husband may complain to a qadi, who must then take whatever action
he thinks necessary to rectify the situation, e.g., pursuading the husband to take employment. [51]
C. Annulment (faskh)
Any time a spouse has certain specified physical or mental disabilities which make continuation of
the marriage difficult, the other spouse may annul the marriage. These disabilities vary according
to the different schools. All schools except the Hanafi list insanity, emasculation, and impotence
for the men, and insanity, leprosy, and a blocked vagina for the wife; each of them except the
Hanafi then adds various other disabilities of the same sort. In the Hanafi school the wife has the
right to annul the marriage only for the three grounds listed, while the husband has no grounds for
annulment on the basis of disabilities. [52]
The spouse who discovers a disability in the other spouse must exercise the right of annulment
immediately or lose the right. Similarly, if there was knowledge of the disability before the
marriage, the marriage is in effect an expression of satisfaction with the disability, so there is no
grounds for annulment; however, the Shafi'is and Malikis hold that a woman's knowledge of the
man's impotence before marriage does not effect her right to annul the marriage. [53] If the
annulment takes place before consummation, the wife receives no dower; if the marriage has been
consummated, she receives the full dower .
All schools agree that disabilities which existed before the marriage are grounds for annulment,
but there is a difference of opinion about disabilities which appear after the marriage. The Malikis
hold that in the case of such later disabilities, the wife-but not the husband-has the right to
annulment before consummation, so long as the husband was healthy before the marriage;
however, in the case of insanity and leprosy, the husband has one year in which to undergo
treatment, If he is not cured in one year , the annulment takes place, [54] All schools agree that a
full year is needed before the man can be judged impotent; after a year, the annulment takes place,
The Shafi'is and Hanbalis maintain that both spouses retain the right to annulment, whether before
or after consummation, The Sunni schools agree that the annulment should be declared by a qadi.
The Shi'is say that disabilities occurring after marriage do not establish grounds for annulment,
with the exception of the husband's insanity, which is grounds for annulment even after
consummation; as for impotence, the wife should seek the qadis pronouncement of the one year
period, but then she herself annuls the marriage. [55]
III. Divorce (Talaq)
The pillars of divorce differ according to the schools. The Hanafis and Hanbalis hold that there is
only one pillar, i,e., the formula through which it takes place. In the view of the Shafi'is and
Malikis, the pillars are (I) the existence of the husband and the wife, (2) the formula of divorce,
and (3) the intention. [56] The Shi'is maintain that the pillars are (1) the husband and wife, (2) the
formula, and (3) two witnesses, [57] The husband may divorce the wife, but not the reverse. In
contrast to marriage, the wife's consent is not necessary.
The man must be in possession of his rational faculties, have reached physical maturity (except in
the Hanbali view), and be acting of his own free will (except according to the Hanafis). The
Hanbalis maintain that a youth who has not reached puberty but who understands the meaning of
divorce and its consequences may divorce his wife of his own accord; the Hanafis say that even if
the formula is pronounced under duress, it is still valid. [58] To the views shared with the other
schools, the Shi'is add that the husband must pronounce the formula with the intent of divorcing
his wife, although unlike the Shafi'is and Malikis, they do not make this a pillar of divorce. [59]
The wife must be a free woman, a permanent wife, and faithful, since there is no divorce in the
case of a slave woman, a temporary wife (in Shi'ism), or an adulteress.
The man must employ words in the formula that denote divorce directly or indirectly, though the
Shi'is hold that the word 'divorce' itself must be employed. A dumb man may divorce his wife
through gestures. The Malikis and Hanafis hold that a man may divorce his wife in writing.
The formula must be pronounced three times in the manner described below.
Divorce has two general categories depending on the time the man chooses to pronounce the
formula: 'traditional' (sunni) divorce, which is permitted, and 'non-traditional' (bid'i) divorce,
which is prohibited.
Whether divorce is traditional or non-traditional depends upon the woman's state of ritual purity
when the man pronounces the formula and his manner of reciting the formula. During
menstruation and confinement after childbirth a woman is ritually impure, and she does not
become pure again until her situation changes and she performs the major ablution (ghusl). For the
traditional divorce to take place, she must be in a state of ritual purity and her husband must not
have had sexual intercourse with her during her last menstrual period (this condition is added for
reasons of precision, even though sexual intercourse during that time is forbidden) or from the
time she performed the major ablution after her period or confinement, According to the Shi'is, if
the woman is in the state known as mustaraba (i,e., she is approaching menopause, her menstrual
period is delayed, and she mayor may not be pregnant), the husband must wait three months in
order to determine her condition, and only then can he divorce her. [60] The man must pronounce
the formula on three separate occasions separated by a specific period of time, as explained below.
Although non-traditional divorce is forbidden with certain exceptions in the view of some schools,
it may still take place. It is divided into several kinds: A divorce given while the woman is in (I)
her menstrual period or (2) confinement, (3) A divorce given by pronouncing the formula three
times on a single occasion; here the Shafi'is maintain that this form of divorce is permissible. [61]
(4) Divorce when the woman is ritually pure after menstruation, but sexual intercourse has taken
place; the Malikis hold that this form of divorce is not forbidden, only reprehensible (makruh ).
In spite of the fact that non-traditional divorce is forbidden, the Sunnis hold that the formula
pronounced under any of the above conditions is still valid. However, the Hanafis and Malikis say
that the man must return to his wife and consider himself as her husband; if he still desires to
divorce her, he must wait until she has purified herself after her second menstrual period from the
time he originally pronounced the formula and then pronounce it once more. If the man does not
return to his wife, the divorce is valid, but the man has then definitely sinned against the shari'a;
however, no punishment is to be inflicted in this world before the Day of Judgment, [62].
The Shi'is maintain that non-traditional divorce is invalid, with the exception of the form in which
a man pronounces the formula three times at once; such a divorce is then irrevocable. [63]
In certain cases, the temporal categories delineated by 'traditional' and 'non-traditional' do not
apply. Thus a man may divorce at any time a woman with whom he has not consummated the
marriage, a girl who has not reached puberty, a woman who has reached menopause, and a
pregnant wife. In three of the schools, these types of divorce are considered traditional, while the
Shafi'is and Hanbalis hold that they are outside the classification. [64] According to three of the
schools, divorce initiated by the wife (khul' and mubarat, discussed below), divorce as a result of
'forswearing' (I'la, below V), and divorce ordered by a qadi have no temporal conditions. The
Malikis and Shi'is hold that these are types of traditional divorce with the same temporal
conditions. [65]
For a divorce to become final, in most cases the man must pronounce the formula on three
different occasions, as described below. Technically, his first and second pronouncements are also
divorces, but they are 'revocable' (rij'i). Hence, divorce may be divided into the revocable and
irrevocable (ba'in) forms. In the following cases, divorce is irrevocable:
I. The divorce of a wife with whom marriage has not been consummated.
2. The divorce of a wife who has not yet reached puberty.
3. The divorce of a wife who has reached menopause.
4. Divorce initiated by the wife (khul' and mubarat ).
5. The third divorce after two revocable divorces.
Once an irrevocable divorce has taken place, a man may not remarry his wife unless she first
marries another man and consummates the marriage; having been divorced irrevocably from her
second husband, she may then remarry her first. The second husband is known as the muhallil, as
mentioned above. In such a situation, it would be normal practice for some sort of agreement to be
made between the wife and her second husband. However, it is not permissible for a condition of
subsequent divorce to be entered into the marriage contract. Outwardly the contract must be the
same as for any permanent marriage. [66]
A woman who has been revocably divorced keeps the status of wife, and the husband may return
to her and have sexual intercourse with her if he so wishes. But according to the Malikis, he must
make the mental intention of returning to her before doing so; and according to the Shafi'is, he
must express the intention verbally to his wife. [67]
It is permissible to include a condition of divorce in the marriage contract in certain cases. Hence,
for example, a wife may stipulate that if her husband should marry a second wife, she will have the
right to be divorced.
Although only the man has the right to pronounce the formula of divorce, the woman may take the
initiative in khul' and mubarat. These two terms are almost synonymous, but in the case of khul',
the wife must have an aversion to her husband; in muharat, there should be mutual aversion. In
each case the wife agrees to pay her husband a certain amount of property in cash or kind if he
divorces her. According to the Shi'is, the amount in muharat must not exceed the amount of the
dower, while in khul' there are no conditions on the amount, These divorces are irrevocable, except
according to the Shi'is, who hold that during her waiting period the woman may take back her
property from her husband, in which case he has the right to conjugal relations. [68] The Hanbalis
maintain that khul' is a form of annulment, not divorce. [69]
Since these

Danial Mahdi